Cover -- Title -- Copyright -- Dedication -- CONTENTS -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- 1 What Makes Humans Human? -- Cultural Evolution -- The Species That Teaches Its Offspring -- The Origin of Pedagogy -- Learning From Others -- Learning as a By-Product and Learning as an Aim -- "De-Pedagogizing" Learning -- Pedagogies of Learning -- Teachers' Professional Knowledge -- 2 What Is to Be Learned? -- What Matters? -- Organizing Learning -- What Is to Be Learned? -- Learning as Differentiation -- Different Meanings of What Is to Be Learned -- 3 Sameness and Difference in Learning -- The Problem With Direct Reference -- Discerning Features That Have Been Discerned Previously -- Discerning Features That Have Not Been Discerned Previously -- We Do Have to Learn to Discern Features Whether or Not They Are Innate -- Learning to Discern Novel Features and Aspects -- Dimensions of Variation and Values -- Neither From the Specific to the General, Nor the Other Way Around -- Patterns of Variation and Invariance -- The Path of Learning -- Critical Aspects and Critical Features, Again -- Why Is the Experience of Difference, Against a Background of the Experience of Sameness, Necessary for Learning to Discern Novel Features and Novel Aspects? -- Delimitation -- Grouping -- Differences and Experienced Differences -- Discernment, Difference, Simultaneity -- Discerning and Learning to Discern -- Using the Known to Prepare for the Unknown -- The Transfer of Learning -- 4 What Does the World Look Like to Others? -- The Revelation of Jonas Emanuelsson -- What Is to Be Learned, Again: Ways of Seeing -- Finding Critical Aspects -- The Learner's Perspective and the Observer's Perspective -- Logic and Understanding -- Asking Questions -- Analyzing Answers -- The Idea of Phenomenography -- Qualitative Differences in Learning, Specific to Specific Objects of Learning.

5 The Art of Learning -- Learners Generating Patterns of Variation and Invariance -- Discoveries as Discernments -- Innovations and the Opening Up of New Dimensions of Variation -- Finding Novel Meanings -- 6 Making Learning Possible -- Three Faces of the Object of Learning -- Necessary Conditions of Necessary Conditions of Learning -- The Origin of Differences -- Analyzing Lessons -- Comparing Teaching -- Relating Learning and Teaching to Each Other -- Bringing About Learning: Patterns of Variation and Invariance as Tools for Planning and Conducting Teaching -- Bringing Learning About: Implementing Patterns of Variation and Invariance -- Bringing About Learning: The Order of Things -- Hierarchical and Sequential Structure in Reading and Writing -- Can the "Art of Learning" Be Learned? -- There Are No Teaching Experiments -- Putting Conjectures to the Test -- The Chinese Connection -- 7 Learning to Help Others to Learn -- What Teachers Have to Be Good At -- What Is to Be Done -- Learning to Handle Pedagogical Units in More Powerful Ways -- Lesson Study -- Design Research -- Learning Study -- Examples of Learning Studies -- "Learning Study in a Wider Sense" -- Effects of Learning Studies -- Teachers' Research -- In School -- References -- Author Index -- Subject Index.

Necessary Conditions of Learning presents a research approach (phenomenography) and a theory (the variation theory of learning) introduced and developed by Ference Marton and taken up by his wide and varied following around the world--together with their practical applications in educational contexts.

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Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, Michigan : ProQuest Ebook Central, 2025. Available via World Wide Web. Access may be limited to ProQuest Ebook Central affiliated libraries.

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